Active and Passive Voice

Lesson 5: The Passive with Reporting Verbs

Lesson: 5 of 7 | Level: 🟣 Upper-Intermediate

1. Lesson Overview

Reporting verbs — verbs such as say, believe, think, know, claim, report, suggest, argue, find, show, consider, and expect — are among the most important verbs in academic, journalistic, and formal English. They allow speakers and writers to present information, claims, and views while simultaneously indicating the source, the degree of certainty, and the writer’s own relationship to the information being conveyed.

When reporting verbs are used in the passive voice, they produce constructions of particular power and versatility — allowing claims to be presented impersonally, without attributing them to a specific source, or with a deliberately vague attribution to a general body of opinion. These constructions are among the most important and most frequently used in academic writing, and mastering them is one of the hallmarks of advanced competence in English.

Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

• Form passive constructions with reporting verbs correctly in all major patterns
• Use it + passive reporting verb + that-clause constructions accurately
• Use subject + passive reporting verb + to-infinitive constructions accurately
• Understand the communicative functions of passive reporting verb constructions in academic writing
• Recognise and correct common errors in passive reporting verb constructions

2. Core Content

A. Why Reporting Verbs Are Used in the Passive

When a reporting verb is used in the active voice, it requires the identification of the person or group making the claim — Darwin argued that…, scientists believe that…, the committee found that…. This is appropriate when the source is known and its identification adds important information.

But in many academic, journalistic, and formal contexts, the writer wishes to present information without attributing it to a specific source — either because the source is a general body of opinion, because multiple sources agree, because the source is irrelevant, or because the writer wishes to distance themselves from the claim.

In these contexts, the passive of the reporting verb is used — producing impersonal, sourceless, authoritative-sounding constructions that are characteristic of formal written English.

Consider the following:

Scientists believe that the deep ocean contains many species that have never been observed. It is believed that the deep ocean contains many species that have never been observed. The deep ocean is believed to contain many species that have never been observed.

All three sentences convey essentially the same information. The first names the source (scientists). The second and third present the belief impersonally — as a general view held without specific attribution. The second and third are examples of the passive of the reporting verb believe — and they are the forms characteristic of formal academic writing.

B. The Two Main Passive Reporting Verb Patterns

There are two major structural patterns for passive reporting verb constructions. Both are important and both are used extensively in academic writing.

Pattern 1 — It + passive reporting verb + that-clause

Structure: It + is/was/has been + past participle of reporting verb + that + clause

For example:

It is believed that the deep ocean contains many species that have never been observed by science. It has been established that hydrothermal vent communities depend entirely on chemosynthesis rather than photosynthesis. It was reported that the monitoring network had been damaged during the seismic event.

In this pattern, it is a dummy subject — it has no referential meaning but serves as the grammatical subject of the sentence, allowing the that-clause to appear after the passive verb. The that-clause contains the information being reported.

Pattern 2 — Subject + passive reporting verb + to-infinitive

Structure: Subject + is/was/has been + past participle of reporting verb + to + infinitive

For example:

The deep ocean is believed to contain many species that have never been observed by science. Hydrothermal vent communities have been established to depend entirely on chemosynthesis. The monitoring network was reported to have been damaged during the seismic event.

In this pattern, the subject of the sentence is the patient of the reporting verb — the thing being reported about. The to-infinitive carries the predicate that is attributed to the subject.

C. Tense in Pattern 1 — It + Passive Reporting Verb + That-Clause

The tense of the passive reporting verb in Pattern 1 reflects when the reporting or believing is taking place — or when it took place. The tense of the verb in the that-clause is independent of the reporting verb and reflects the actual time of the situation being reported.

For example:

It is now well established that deep-sea ecosystems are far more complex and biodiverse than was believed even two decades ago. It was once assumed that all life on Earth ultimately depended on photosynthesis — the discovery of hydrothermal vent communities in 1977 overturned this assumption permanently. It has been demonstrated that the rate of ocean acidification is accelerating in direct response to rising atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.

D. Tense in Pattern 2 — Subject + Passive Reporting Verb + To-Infinitive

In Pattern 2, the to-infinitive carries important tense information. The choice between the simple infinitive and the perfect infinitive reflects whether the reported situation is simultaneous with or earlier than the time of the reporting.

Simple infinitive — the situation is simultaneous with or later than the reporting

Structure: Subject + passive reporting verb + to + bare infinitive

For example:

The species is believed to live at depths of more than 4,000 metres — far deeper than any previous observation had suggested. The glacier is expected to lose more than 30 per cent of its remaining volume over the next two decades.

Perfect infinitive — the situation occurred before the time of the reporting

Structure: Subject + passive reporting verb + to have + past participle

For example:

The species is believed to have evolved in isolation over a period of several million years. The glacier is known to have retreated by more than two kilometres since systematic measurements began in 1900. The vent community was reported to have been damaged by the seismic event that occurred earlier in the week.

The contrast between simple and perfect infinitive is particularly important in academic writing — is believed to live means the species currently lives there; is believed to have lived means it lived there in the past.

E. Common Reporting Verbs Used in Passive Constructions

The following reporting verbs are among the most commonly used in passive constructions in academic and formal writing. They are grouped by the type of claim or communicative function they express.

Verbs of belief and knowledge

believe, know, think, consider, understand, assume, suppose, expect

It is believed that the deep ocean contains many undescribed species. The species is known to produce bioluminescent light to attract prey. It is understood that the rate of coral bleaching is accelerating.

Verbs of reporting and claiming

report, claim, say, state, allege, announce, declare

It has been reported that the monitoring equipment was damaged during the storm. The findings are claimed to represent the most significant discovery in deep-sea biology for a decade. It was announced that the second phase of the expedition would commence in March.

Verbs of showing and demonstrating

show, demonstrate, establish, prove, confirm, reveal, find

It has been shown that ocean acidification is occurring at an accelerating rate. The species is demonstrated to depend entirely on chemosynthesis for its energy. It has been established that deep-sea vent communities can survive without sunlight.

Verbs of suggesting and arguing

suggest, argue, propose, hypothesise, indicate, imply

It has been suggested that the current rate of deep-sea species loss may already be accelerating. The data is argued to support the hypothesis that temperature is the primary driver of bleaching. It has been proposed that a new monitoring framework should be established before the next phase of extraction begins.

Verbs of estimation and calculation

estimate, calculate, predict, project, forecast

It is estimated that more than 95 per cent of the ocean floor has never been directly observed. Global temperatures are predicted to rise by between 1.5°C and 4°C above pre-industrial levels by the end of this century. The population is calculated to have declined by more than 40 per cent over the past two decades.

F. Patterns with Say — A Special Case

Say is one of the most common reporting verbs but it behaves slightly differently from others — it is more commonly used in Pattern 1 (it is said that) than in Pattern 2 (the species is said to), though both are grammatically correct.

For example:

It is said that the deep ocean is the last truly unexplored frontier on Earth. The deep ocean is said to be the last truly unexplored frontier on Earth.

Both patterns are acceptable with say — but in formal academic writing, Pattern 2 (the subject is said to) is often preferred because it integrates more smoothly into paragraph structure.

G. Using Passive Reporting Constructions for Hedging

In academic writing, passive reporting verb constructions serve an important hedging function — allowing the writer to present claims with appropriate tentativeness rather than as personal assertions. By attributing a claim to a general body of opinion or to an impersonal construction, the writer signals that the claim is not their own definitive statement but a view held in the field.

Compare the following:

The deep ocean contains many undescribed species. (direct assertion — the writer takes full responsibility) Scientists believe that the deep ocean contains many undescribed species. (attributed to scientists — the writer distances themselves) It is believed that the deep ocean contains many undescribed species. (impersonal — maximum distance from the claim) The deep ocean is believed to contain many undescribed species. (impersonal — widely used in academic prose)

The choice among these options depends on the writer’s confidence in the claim and their desire to foreground or background their own position. Passive reporting verb constructions are at the most impersonal and most hedged end of the spectrum.

3. Usage in Context

• It is believed that + clause presents a claim as a widely held view — without attributing it to a specific source.

It is now widely believed that the deep ocean plays a far more significant role in regulating the global carbon cycle than was understood even twenty years ago. It is believed that many of the species associated with hydrothermal vent communities have not yet been formally described or classified by science.

• It has been shown that + clause presents an established finding — something that research has demonstrated.

It has been shown that the rate of ocean acidification is accelerating in direct proportion to rising atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. It has been convincingly demonstrated that hydrothermal vent communities can sustain complex food webs in the complete absence of sunlight.

• It has been suggested that + clause presents a more tentative claim — one that has been proposed but not yet fully established.

It has been suggested that the current rate of deep-sea species loss may already be accelerating as a result of the combined effects of warming and acidification. It has been proposed that a comprehensive international regulatory framework for deep-sea mining should be established before any further expansion of extraction operations is permitted.

• It was once believed/assumed that + clause introduces a former assumption that has since been revised or overturned.

It was once assumed that the deep ocean below 1,000 metres was essentially a biological desert — devoid of significant life. It was widely believed until the mid-20th century that the continents had always occupied their current positions on the surface of the Earth.

• It is estimated that + clause presents a quantitative claim — a calculated or projected figure.

It is estimated that more than 95 per cent of the ocean floor has never been directly observed by human beings or their instruments. It is currently estimated that the Amazon basin contains approximately 10 per cent of all species of life currently known to science.

• The subject + is believed to + bare infinitive presents a current claim about the subject — the situation is simultaneous with the reporting.

The species is believed to live at depths of more than 4,000 metres — considerably deeper than any previous observation had suggested. The vent field is estimated to cover an area of approximately 200 square kilometres on the floor of the western Pacific.

• The subject + is believed to have + past participle presents a claim about the subject’s past — the situation occurred before the time of the reporting.

The species is believed to have evolved in complete isolation over a period of several million years, producing a suite of highly specialised adaptations to its extreme environment. The glacier is known to have retreated by more than two kilometres since the first systematic measurements were taken in 1900.

• The subject + is expected to + bare infinitive expresses a future prediction about the subject.

Global temperatures are expected to rise by between 1.5°C and 4°C above pre-industrial levels by the end of this century, depending on the trajectory of emissions. The glacier is predicted to lose more than 30 per cent of its remaining volume over the next two decades if current warming trends continue.

• It is reported that + clause presents information from a source — used in journalism and formal reporting.

It has been reported that the monitoring network was damaged during the seismic event and that several months of data may have been lost. It was reported at the time that the team had made an extraordinary discovery — though the full significance of the finding was not immediately appreciated.

• It is argued that + clause presents a position or argument — used in academic writing to attribute a claim to a school of thought or body of literature.

It has been argued by several leading researchers that the current regulatory framework for deep-sea mining is wholly inadequate to protect the ecosystems at risk. It is argued in this paper that the rate of deep-sea species loss is accelerating and that urgent protective measures are required.

• Distinguish simple infinitive from perfect infinitive in Pattern 2 — the choice reflects whether the reported situation is current or past.

The species is believed to inhabit depths of more than 4,000 metres. (current — present situation) The species is believed to have colonised the vent field relatively recently. (past — event before the time of reporting)

• Use passive reporting verb constructions for hedging in academic writing — to present claims with appropriate tentativeness rather than as personal definitive assertions.

It has been suggested that the methodology may not be appropriate for use in conditions of extreme pressure and temperature — a limitation that warrants further investigation. The results are considered to be broadly consistent with the predictions of the model, though several anomalies remain to be explained.

• In the passive reporting verb construction, the by-phrase can be added to identify the source when this is important.

It has been demonstrated by independent research teams at three separate institutions that the rate of acidification is accelerating. The species is known by marine biologists to produce bioluminescent light using a biochemical mechanism unlike that of any previously studied organism.

• Use it is worth noting that, it should be noted that, and it must be acknowledged that — passive constructions with note, acknowledge, and mention — to introduce qualifications and caveats in academic writing.

It should be noted that the sample size of the current study is relatively small and that the findings may not be fully representative of conditions across the wider region. It must be acknowledged that the methodology has limitations that may affect the reliability of the results in certain contexts.

4. Common Errors and Corrections

5. Lesson Mastery

After completing this lesson, you should now be able to:

    ✅ Form passive constructions with reporting verbs correctly in all major patterns

    ✅ Use it + passive reporting verb + that-clause constructions accurately

    ✅ Use subject + passive reporting verb + to-infinitive constructions accurately

    ✅ Understand the communicative functions of passive reporting verb constructions in academic writing

    ✅ Recognise and correct common errors in passive reporting verb constructions